Research in the fields of complex problem solving (CPS) and dynamic decision making using microworlds has been mainly conducted in Western industrialized countries. This study analyzes the CPS process by investigating thinking‐aloud protocols in five countries. Participants were 511 students from Brazil, Germany, India, the Philippines, and the United States who worked on two microworlds. On the basis of cultural‐psychological theories, specific cross‐national differences in CPS strategies were hypothesized. Following theories of situatedness of cognition, hypotheses about the specific frequency of (...) problem‐solving strategies in the two microworlds were developed. Results of the verbal protocols showed (a) modification of the theoretical CPS model, (b) task dependence of CPS strategies, and (c) cross‐national differences in CPS strategies. Participants’ CPS processes were particularly influenced by country‐specific problem‐solving strategies. (shrink)

The Role of Motivation in Complex Problem SolvingPrevious research on Complex Problem Solving (CPS) has primarily focused on cognitive factors as outlined below. The current paper discusses the role of motivation during CPS and argues that motivation, emotion, and cognition interact and cannot be studied in an isolated manner. Motivation is the process that determines the energization and direction of behavior (Heckhausen, 1991).Three motivation theories and their relation to CPS are examined: McClelland’s achievement motivation, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and Dörner’s (...) needs as outlined in PSI-theory. We chose these three theories for several reasons. First, space forces us to be selective. Second, the three theories are among the most prominent motivational theories. Finally, they are need theories postulating several motivations and not just one. A thinking-aloud protocol is provided to illustrate the role of motivational and cognitive dynamics in CPS. Problems are part of all the domains of human life. The field of CPS investigates problems that are complex, dynamic, and non-transparent (Dörner, 1996). Complex problems consist of many interactively interrelated variables. Dynamic ones change and develop further over time, regardless of whether the involved people take action. And non-transparent problems have many aspects of the problem situation that are unclear or unknown to the involved people. CPS researchers focus exactly on such kinds of problems. Under a narro... (shrink)

What political, economic, religious, and emotional factors are involved in a person's decision to kill civilians and military personnel through the sacrifice of his or her own life? Data for this research were secondary analyses of interviews with Islamic martyrs, as well as their leaders’ speeches. This investigation into the cultural-psychological explanations for Islamic martyrdom leads to a model explaining a person's decision to carry out the mission as resulting from a combination of four factors: the historical-cultural context, group processes, (...) immediate and anticipated rewards, and mechanisms to eradicate possible doubts and guilt regarding this decision. Compared to existing models, this model is more integrative and focused on the psychological processes involved. (shrink)

Thinking aloud is the concurrent verbalization of thoughts while performing a task. The study of thinking-aloud protocols has a long tradition in cognitive psychology, the field of education, and the industrial-organizational context. It has been used rarely in cultural and cross-cultural psychology. This paper will describe thinking aloud as a useful method in cultural and cross-cultural psychology referring to a few studies in general and one study in particular to show the wide applications of this method. Thinking-aloud protocols can be (...) applied for a) improving the validity of cross-cultural surveys, b) process analysis of thoughts and the analysis of changes over time, c) theory development across cultures, d) the study of cultural meaning systems, and e) individual as well as group level analyses allowing hypothesis testing cross-culturally. Limitations of the thinking-aloud method are also discussed. (shrink)

Given Van de Vliert's impressive dataset and prognoses, I will discuss three limitations. First, the evolutionary argument does not adequately take into account how political changes influence freedoms. Second, the operationalizations of needs and freedoms are limited and questionable. Third, a direct relationship between climate, monetary resources, and psychological variables is a simplification neglecting various intervening variables.

This article shows how there is a great kinship between Polanyi's thought and that of Bernard Haring, "the father of modern moral theology" in the Roman Catholic Church. Haring advocated an ethics of personal responsibility that calls for an epistemology such as Polanyi developed for history and social sciences in The Study of Man.

ZusammenfassungDie rasanten technischen Fortschritte in der Genomforschung ermöglichen heute schon die Sequenzierung des einzelnen menschlichen Genoms in wenigen Tagen und zu vertretbaren Kosten. In der Krebsforschung ermöglicht die genetische Sequenzanalyse, zunehmend die Defekte zu identifizieren, die für das Tumorwachstum bei jedem einzelnen Patienten verantwortlich sind. Auf dieser Basis können zielgerichteter Therapien entwickelt werden. Diese Forschung wirft jedoch auch neue, ethische Fragen auf. Diesen normativen Fragen widmet sich in Heidelberg das interdisziplinäre EURAT Projekt mit dem Ziel, ethisch und rechtlich informierte Lösungen (...) zu formulieren und zu etablieren.Dieser Beitrag gibt zum einen einen Überblick über die ethischen und klinischen Fragen, die für den Aufklärungs- und Einwilligungsprozess in die biobankbasierte Genomforschung relevant sind. Zum anderen wird als organisationsethische Antwort auf die Frage, wie eine Forschungsinstitution den verantwortungsvollen Umgang mit genetischen Informationen in Biobanken über die verschiedenen Berufsgruppen und beteiligten Institute hinweg sichern kann, ein Verhaltenskodex vorgestellt. Eine gut begründete, informierte Zustimmung und ein Verhaltenskodex sind beides Elemente einer „Best Practice Leitlinie“ und sollen den verantwortlichen Umgang aller beteiligten Mitarbeiter mit sensiblen genetischen Daten prägen. (shrink)

Die rasanten technischen Fortschritte in der Genomforschung ermöglichen heute schon die Sequenzierung des einzelnen menschlichen Genoms in wenigen Tagen und zu vertretbaren Kosten. In der Krebsforschung ermöglicht die genetische Sequenzanalyse, zunehmend die Defekte zu identifizieren, die für das Tumorwachstum bei jedem einzelnen Patienten verantwortlich sind. Auf dieser Basis können zielgerichteter Therapien entwickelt werden. Diese Forschung wirft jedoch auch neue, ethische Fragen auf. Diesen normativen Fragen widmet sich in Heidelberg das interdisziplinäre EURAT Projekt mit dem Ziel, ethisch und rechtlich informierte Lösungen (...) zu formulieren und zu etablieren.Dieser Beitrag gibt zum einen einen Überblick über die ethischen und klinischen Fragen, die für den Aufklärungs- und Einwilligungsprozess in die biobankbasierte Genomforschung relevant sind. Zum anderen wird als organisationsethische Antwort auf die Frage, wie eine Forschungsinstitution den verantwortungsvollen Umgang mit genetischen Informationen in Biobanken über die verschiedenen Berufsgruppen und beteiligten Institute hinweg sichern kann, ein Verhaltenskodex vorgestellt. Eine gut begründete, informierte Zustimmung und ein Verhaltenskodex sind beides Elemente einer „Best Practice Leitlinie“ und sollen den verantwortlichen Umgang aller beteiligten Mitarbeiter mit sensiblen genetischen Daten prägen. (shrink)

There have undoubtedly been ample reasons to discourage a translator from approaching this commentary on the Metaphysics. The reasons stem mainly from the lack of a critical text. As is well enough known, such a text is at present in preparation by the Dominicans. Until it appears, attempts even at discussing the many disconcerting problems about the commentary run the risk of proving futile. In consequence, discussions have fallen off in recent years. As Rowan is careful to point out in (...) his introduction, there is sufficient evidence not only that errors have been made through simple negligence in the editions of the commentary, but also that "all sorts of liberties" may have been taken with the text. What we have at present, moreover, might possibly be a running text based on redactions dating from different years in St. Thomas' teaching career. If one may judge from the way Rowan presents the different views, he personally prefers hypotheses that simplify the situation and allow the text now available to be considered as a single continuous writing left in its present form by Aquinas himself. (shrink)

ZusammenfassungIn einem Modellprojekt soll durch die Einführung einer persönlichen, einrichtungsübergreifenden, elektronischen Patientenakte nicht nur die Behandlungskontinuität verbessert, sondern auch das Recht auf informationelle Selbstbestimmung dahingehend realisiert werden, dass jeder Patient zum Administrator einer Datencloud gemacht wird, die alle seine Gesundheitsdaten enthält. Eine systematische Literaturrecherche zum Thema „elektronische Patientenakten “ soll mögliche ethische Herausforderungen in Verbindung mit der oben genannten PEPA antizipieren. Von initial 2487 Publikationen wurden 51 Publikationen ausgewertet: 30 empirische Studien, 10 medizinethische Analysen und 11 Meinungspapiere. In den empirischen (...) Studien wurden als erste Effekte einer EPA vor allem eine vollständigere medizinische Aktenlage beschrieben. Mit der Einsichtsmöglichkeit für den Patienten in die EPA konnten zusätzlich ein besseres Krankheitsverständnis und damit erhöhte Compliance des Patienten nachgewiesen werden. Eine Verbesserung der Behandlungsqualität wurde auf die Fehlervermeidung durch Patienteneinsicht, effektivere Nutzung der Arzt-Patienten-Besuche und das verbesserte Verständnis für das Therapiekonzept zurückgeführt. Ebenfalls wurde in den Studien eine Stärkung des Vertrauensverhältnisses von Arzt und Patient beschrieben. Bedenken gab es im Vorfeld vieler Studien hinsichtlich des Datenschutzes, eines möglichen Verlustes der persönlichen Arzt-Patienten-Beziehung und einer potentiellen Überforderung des Patienten. In der Beurteilung der EPA spielte die Abwägung zwischen ärztlicher Fürsorge und Patientenautonomie eine große Rolle. Die von medizinethischer Seite geäußerten Bedenken bezüglich eines Vertrauensverlustes oder einer Störung des Arzt-Patienten-Verhältnisses konnten in den empirischen Studien nicht bestätigt werden. Die befürchteten Risiken im Datenschutz wurden von den Betroffenen zugunsten des potentiellen Nutzens einer EPA abgewogen. Unter Wahrung des Datenschutzes hat daher die PEPA das Potential, durch die Mitbeteiligung des Patienten das Arzt-Patienten-Verhältnis positiv zu beeinflussen. Die spezifischen ethischen Herausforderungen, die mit der Co-Verwaltung der PEPA einhergehen, werden im Modellprojekt untersucht. (shrink)

Data-sharing among genomic researchers is promoted for its potential to accelerate our understanding of the molecular basis of cancer. However, with genomic data sharing the risks of re-identifying study participants, revealing personal genomic information and data misuse might increase. This study aims at exploring perceptions of patients and physicians in Oncology regarding their assessment of the informational risks resulting from participating in whole genomic research studies in order to improve the informed consent process. For this purpose, we conducted a qualitative (...) focus group study at the National Center for Tumor Diseases. Patients and oncologists assessed the informational risks either as minimal or as greater than minimal, depending on the context factors of occupational status, age, and patients’ prognosis. Interestingly, even patients who assumed a greater risk did not refrain from participating in genomic research, provided that certain informational and institutional safeguards are implemented. Moreover, they expected comprehensive disclosure of the risks resulting from genomic data sharing. These results suggest comprehensive disclosure of the risks of genomic research to potential study participants in genomic research to facilitate risk assessment and sound decision making, establishing independent governance entities in order to minimize the informational risks of genomic research, and implementing data sharing policies which offer guidance for physicians and researchers involved in genomic research. (shrink)

Mednarodni simpozij ob 1600‐letnici Hieronimove smrti z naslovom Hieronymus noster se bo odvil v Ljubljani, 24.–26. oktobra 2019, v dvorani SAZU. Organizirajo ga Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti; univerze v Ljubljani, Zagrebu, Gradcu in Varšavi; Srednjeevropska univerza na Dunaju (CEU); mednarodna mreža Europa Renascens; projekt DANUBIUS (Université de Lille); in Institut des Sources chrétiennes.

Several commentators, among them R. Rorty, argue that Cartesian ideas are to be understood as internal objects or pictures that are presented to the mind on an 'inner arena'. In this paper I intend to show that such an interpretation is flawed if one takes into account Descartes' definition of ideas as mental a c t s having a representational content. I analyze this definition, paying particular attention to three crucial theses: intentionality is an intrinsic feature of all mental acts; (...) mental acts primarily represent the essence of an object, not the existing object; the object, insofar as it is presented to the mind, determines the socalled Objective reality' of an idea. I reach the conclusion that one ought to be careful in attributing a representational theory to Descartes. His theory may be called representational only if it is understood as a theory about representing mental acts that are immediately directed towards external objects. (shrink)

Vivarium (VIV) is an international journal dedicated to the history of philosophy and intellectual life from the early Middle Ages to the early modern era. It is widely recognized as an unrivalled resource for the history of logic, semantics, epistemology, and metaphysics. It welcomes articles on medieval, Renaissance and early-modern thinkers, their ideas, arguments, and writings, as well as the institutional and intellectual life of this period. -/- Editions of texts as brief appendices to the main articles may be added. (...) Articles on early-modern philosophy are welcome if they link it with the medieval and Renaissance traditions. Articles on Arabic and Jewish thought are welcome if there is a clear connection with the Latin tradition. Vivarium also publishes regularly special issues devoted to a particular theme or philosopher. (shrink)

This paper presents a calculus for mereotopological reasoning in which two-dimensional spatial regions are treated as primitive entities. A first order predicate language ℒ with a distinguished unary predicate c(x), function-symbols +, · and - and constants 0 and 1 is defined. An interpretation ℜ for ℒ is provided in which polygonal open subsets of the real plane serve as elements of the domain. Under this interpretation the predicate c(x) is read as 'region x is connected' and the function-symbols and (...) constants are given their meaning in terms of a Boolean algebra of polygons. We give an alternative interpretation ������ base on the real closed plane which turns out to be isomorphic to ℜ. A set of axioms and a rule of inference are introduced. We prove the soundness and completeness of the calculus with respect to the given interpretation. (shrink)

A region-based model of physical space is one in which the primitive spatial entities are regions, rather than points, and in which the primitive spatial relations take regions, rather than points, as their relata. Historically, the most intensively investigated region-based models are those whose primitive relations are topological in character; and the study of the topology of physical space from a region-based perspective has come to be called mereotopology. This paper concentrates on a mereotopological formalism originally introduced by Whitehead, which (...) employs a single primitive binary relation C(x, y) (read: "x is in contact with y"). Thus, in this formalism, all topological facts supervene on facts about contact. Because of its potential application to theories of qualitative spatial reasoning, Whitehead's primitive has recently been the subject of scrutiny from within the Artificial Intelligence community. Various results regarding the mereotopology of the Euclidean plane have been obtained, settling such issues as expressive power, axiomatization and the existence of alternative models. The contribution of the present paper is to extend some of these results to the mereotopology of three-dimensional Euclidean space. Specifically, we show that, in a first-order setting where variables range over tame subsets of ℝ³, Whitehead's primitive is maximally expressive for topological relations; and we deduce a corollary constraining the possible region-based models of the space we inhabit. (shrink)

In both the literal and metaphorical senses, it seemed as if 1970s America was running out of gas.

Although gas thermometers have long been the standard against which all other thermometers are checked, English-language physics textbooks usually propose experiments for students to test the linearity of the relationship, at constant pressure, between gas volume and temperature indicated by a mercury thermometer. This absurd exercise receives support from many authoritative textbooks which wrongly associate with Gay-Lussac's classic 1802 paper in Annales de Chimie—in which he announced that all gases have the same mean expansivity over the range 0 to 100°C—a (...) diagram of an apparatus he used, later, to compare mercury thermometers with air thermometers. This confusion is first found in Biot's Traité de Physique and has been perpetuated, with unfortunate consequences, by many subsequent authors. (shrink)

Die Frage, wie sich Aussagen uber Fahigkeiten von Personen zu Aussagen uber Moglichkeiten von Zustanden in der Welt verhalten, ist fur unser menschliches Selbstverstandnis zentral. Der vorliegende Band versammelt unter dieser Frage durchweg Originalbeitrage in historisch-systematischer Absicht; sie behandeln die Geschichte der Metaphysik und Ontologie von Parmenides bis Heidegger.INHALT: VORWORT - Klaus Jacobi: Das Konnen und die Moglichkeiten. Potentialitat und Possibilitat - Mischa von Perger: Moglichkeit, Parmenideisch - Ulrich Nortmann: 'Das Saatkorn ist dem Vermogen nach eine Pflanze'. Uber ontologische und (...) logische Aspekte Aristotelischer Moglichkeitssatze - Sang-Jin Kang: Anselm und die modallogische Betrachtung der gottlichen Notwendigkeit - Michael Astroh: Petrus Abaelardus on Modalities de re and de dicto - Christopher Martin: Peter Abaelard on Modality. Some Possibilities and Some Puzzles - Allan Back: Avicenna and Averroes: Modality and Theology - Seung-Chan (Elias) Park: Die Differenz von personlicher und unpersonlicher Moglichkeit bei Thomas von Aquin - Charles Lohr: 'Art' and Possibility: The Rule Concerning Possibility in the Ars lulliana - Peter King: Duns Scotus on Possibilities, Powers, and the Possible - Matthias Kaufmann: Gottes Allmacht und die Wahrheit modaler Satze. Potentialitat und Possibilitat bei Wilhelm von Ockham - Simo Knuuttila: On the History of Theory of Modality as Alternativeness - Stephan Meier-Oeser: Potentia versus Possibilitas? Posse! Zur cusanischen Konzeption der Moglichkeit - Dominik Perler: Cartesische Moglichkeiten - Hans Poser: Leibniz'sche Handlungsmodi zwischen Ontologie und Deontologie - Wilhelm Metz: Der transzendentale Moglichkeitsbegriff bei Kant und Fichte - Rainer Marten: Heidegger: Die eigenste eigentliche Moglichkeit - Tilman Borsche: Moglichkeiten des Seins, Moglichkeiten des Denkens - Thomas Buchheim: Zwischen Antinomie und Kompatibilitat: Versuch uber die naturliche Einbettung unserer Handlungsfreiheit - Kuno Lorenz: Dynamis und Energeia. Zur Aktualitat eines begrifflichen Werkzeugs von Aristoteles. (shrink)

A panel titled Feminist Philosophy after Twenty Years was organized by Carol C. Gould for the session sponsored by the Committee on the Status of Women at the American Philosophical Association's 1993 Eastern Division Meeting, December 30, 1993 in Atlanta, GA. The remarks of the three panelists, Linda Lopez McAlister, Ann Ferguson and Kathy Addelson are printed below.

The preparation of layers of amorphous Se by plasma-enhanced CVD using the hydride H2Se as precursor gas is described. Information concerning the structure of the films was obtained from Raman spectroscopy. The spectra of amorphous Se indicated that the dominant molecular structure is the eight-membered ring and/or a chain with Se8 molecular fragments. This material exhibited reversible photodarkening when illuminated at 77 K. In order to explain this phenomenon, we propose a mechanism which takes into account the role of the (...) lone-pair electron orbitals of Se in their contribution to structural ordering. Illumination can cause a distortion in the normal bonding direction between nearest-neighbour Se atoms and induce in this way intrinsic defect states located at the band edges. In the photo-darkened state, optical transition will occur between these defect states. (shrink)

Proceeding on a limited number of general, widely accepted equity criteria, we develop a proposal for distributing common resources. In particular, the proposed fair division mechanism is individually rational, envy-free, Pareto-efficient and satisfies the stand alone test, which follows as a minimum requirement from the resource and population monotonicity criteria. Applied to international climate policy, the thrust of this proposal is that the South should initially be fully compensated for the greenhouse gas abatement measures it is to undertake as a (...) result of efficiency considerations. (shrink)

The history of the dyestuffs industry during the period 1775–1860 is interesting for three reasons. In the first place it was in connection with the manufacture of synthetic dyestuffs, begun in 1856, that the industrial research laboratory and the organization scientist first unmistakably appeared in the last decades of the nineteenth century. Secondly, there are the enigmas of W. H. Perkin, the man who discovered and manufactured the first coal-tar colours, but who retired somewhat abruptly from the industry in 1874: (...) just after the synthesis of alizarine. Thirdly, the dyestuffs industry was in intimate association with the textile industries which had for a long time been subject to frequent radical scientific and technological innovation. Among the most important of these we may mention John Smeaton's classic paper of 1759 on the maximum work obtainable from a given fall of water: a problem important not only for the abstract science of mechanics, but also for the design of waterwheels—the main source of power for the early textile mills. (The waterwheel was not, during the eighteenth century, the epitome of the quaint and picturesque: it was in the van of scientific and technical progress.) Again, the textile industries were quick to employ the Watt rotative engine; previously a two cylinder Newcomen engine had been tried out. Bleaching powders, based on Scheele's discovery of chlorine and its properties, were rapidly adopted: in this context one cannot help contrasting the indifference of medical science to Davy's early suggestion of using nitrous oxide as an anaesthetic; or Faraday's comment in 1818 on the anaesthetic power of sulphuric ether. The textile industries saw, over this period, a rapid succession of new machines, the pace of invention being so hot that in 1832 Charles Babbage reported that machines became obsolete long before they wore out. A Salford cotton mill was the first industrial establishment to use gas lighting: James Thomson, calico printer, introduced gas lighting to the town of Clitheroe when he installed it in his works. And there were many other important technical and scientific innovations. It was to supply these industries, so well accustomed to change, that the synthetic coal-tar dyestuffs were introduced from 1856 onwards. It is interesting that, so far as we can see, the appearance of these synthetic dyestuffs was the last in the series of major innovations in the textiles and related industries: at least until recent times. (shrink)

Bu makale Orhan Pamuk’un Kar romanından hareketle çağdaş Türk romanında din ve siyaset ilişkisine odaklanmıştır. Çalışma, Türkiye’nin yakın dönemdeki dini ve siyasi tartışmalarına edebi bir kurgu ile yaklaşan Kar’da din-siyaset ilişkilerinin nasıl bir paradigma üzerine oturduğunu ve bu çerçevede Türkiye’de dini ve siyasi kültürün romana nasıl yansıdığını anlama ve açıklama hedefini gütmüştür. Romanda 1980 sonrası yeni bir gelişim ivmesi yakalamış ve 1990’lar boyunca siyaseti daha aktif bir şekilde motive eden sağ, muhafazakar ve İslamcı çevrelerle aslında -yazarın yaklaşımı çerçevesinde- Türkiye’ye bir (...) türlü uğramayan modernizmin Türkiye’dekijakoben ve taşralı temsilcilerinin değerleri arasındaki çatışmalar öne çıkarılmıştır. Postmodern bir bakış açısıyla yazılan Kar İslamcı-laik, Doğulu-Batılı çatışmaları arasında modernleşme çabalarının devam ettiği bu aşamada din ve siyaset ilişkileriyle ilgili önemli fotoğraflar paylaşmıştır. Nihayet romanda din; yoksulluk ve yoksunlukları araçsallaştırıcı, yerine göre değişimi engelleyici karakteri yanında baskın olarak ideolojik yönü ile öne çıkarılmıştır. Siyaset ise orada daha çok jakoben ve laik, modernleşme ile ilişkisi bağlamında da taşralı olarak betimlenmiştir.Özet: Şüphe yok ki imparatorluktan Cumhuriyete geçiş sürecinde edebiyat; özellikle de Batılı bir ürün olarak roman, modern Türkiye’nin bilinç düzeyinin inşasında önemli bir rol oynamıştır. Bu edebi etki belli bir çizgi takip etmek yerine 2 asra yaklaşan maceralı yolculuğu içinde genellikle Türk toplumunun dönemsel tarihi, sosyal, politik şartları ile uyum içinde yürümüştür. Bu bağlamda Türk romanı başlangıçta daha yoğun olmak üzere siyasal yapıyı meşrulaştırıcı bir tavır takınırken özellikle son yarım asırda modernleşmenin ulaştığı noktalar itibariyle farklı iktidar ve ideoloji üretmenin bir aracı olarak da görülmüştür. Fakat bununla birlikte kültürel sistemin önemli bir unsuru olarak din romanın söz konusu yolculuğunda hep ana temalardan biri olmuştur.Makale çağdaş Türk romanında din-siyaset ilişkilerinin din sosyolojisi açısından incelenmesini konu edinmiştir. Çalışmaya örnek olarak Orhan Pamuk’un, ilk baskısını 2002 yılında yapan ve Türkiye’de 1980’li şartların olgunlaştırdığı gerilimli din-siyaset ilişkilerini geniş bir kültürel birikimden hareketle temalaştıran Kar romanı seçilmiştir. Çalışmanın amacı çağdaş Türk romanının Türkiye’de her zaman bir gerilim ortamı yaratmış din-siyaset ilişkilerine yaklaşımını Kar örnekleminde anlamak ve açıklamaktır. Bu çerçevede tarihsel bir karşılaştırma yapılarak Türk romanının siyaset ve din algısında Karın yeri gözden geçirilmiş, bir sosyal kişilik ve yazar olarak Orhan Pamuk üzerinde durulmuş ve daha sonra da romandaki sosyal olay, olgu ve süreçlerin inşa ettiği farklı bilinç düzeyleri fenomenolojik bir perspektiften değerlendirilmiştir.Bu çalışmada Kar modern Türkiye’nin yakın dönem din-siyaset ilişkilerini dini ve siyasi kültürün farklı anlam setleri üzerinden postmodern bir alegori ile işleyen bir roman olarak görülmüştür. Bu yönüyle Kar edebi bir ürün olmanın yanında kendini toplumun dini, siyasi ve ideolojik bilgi gövdesi hakkında farklı bilinç düzeylerine yer veren hatta bugünkü din-siyaset ilişkilerinin köklü sorunlarına ışık tutan bir metin olarak da sunmuştur. Buradan hareketle denilebilir ki roman, edebiyat-toplum ilişkisi bağlamında bir taraftan toplumunun dini ve siyasi değerleri çerçevesinde olayları örgütlerken diğer taraftan bu değerlere postmodern bakış açıları sunmak suretiyle bir zenginlik katmıştır. Nihayet Karda Pamuk Türkiye’de din ve siyaset ilişkilerinin toplum temelinde edebi bir dışavurumunu gerçekleştirmiştir. Ancak bu dışavurum Osmanlıdan Cumhuriyete intikal eden dini ve siyasi birikim yanı sıra kendinin kurumsal bir bagaj etrafında şekillendirdiği sosyal kişiliğinden bağımsız olmamıştır.Açıkça Pamuk, Karda din ve siyasete, onların birbirleriyle olan ilişkilerine bazen farklı karakterler üzerinden bazen de ironi ve eleştiriler yoluyla bir dizi anlamlar yüklemiştir. Postmodern bir paradigma etrafında Kar din ve siyasetin farklı anlam dünyalarını ve bu kadim iki sosyal kurumun farklı görüntülerini felsefi ve sosyolojik bir bakış açısı içinde sunmuştur. Başka bir ifadeyle Pamuk romanın olay örgüsünü, sosyal tiplerini, sosyal sınıfları ve bunların epistemolojik birikimlerini kendi doğal sosyoekonomik, kültürel, dini ve politik ortamlarında ele almıştır. Kar, İslamcı-modernist gerilimi üzerinden şekillenen bir kimlik mücadelesi etrafında kurgulanmıştır. Burada din ve siyasetin bireysel-uzlaşmacı yönlerine yer verilmekle birlikte “Kemalist” ve “İslamcılar”ın dayatmacı, popülist siyaset anlayışları ile dinin dışlayıcı ve ideolojik yönü öne çıkarılmıştır. Dolayısıyla roman 28 Şubat 1997 askeri müdahalesinden esinlenerek Türkiye’de bir karşılığa sahip dini ve siyasi kültüre ışık tutmuş ve nihayet toplumun din ve siyaset kurumlarına ait anlam şebekeleri hakkında bugüne de yansıyan önemli fotoğraflar çekmiştir.Karda din ve siyaset “darbe”, “Kemalizm”, “siyasal İslam”, “türban”, “İslamcı”, “laik” gibi kavramlara yüklenen anlamlar üzerinden işlenmiştir. Romanda “darbe” özelinde ortaya konan sosyal ve politik görüntüler 2000’li yıllar itibariyle Cumhuriyet’in yaklaşık son yarım yüzyılını gösteren bir dizi semboller taşımıştır. Nitekim romanda konu edinilen darbe özellikle 1980 sonrası yaşanan sosyoekonomik, kültürel, siyasi, dini ve etnik sorunlar etrafında örgütlenip güçlenen “dinci”lere karşı yapılmıştır. Öte yandan romanda “Kemalizm” ve onun yaydığı ideoloji, Türkiye’de siyasetin değerlendirildiği diğer önemli bir tema olmuştur. Bu bağlamda farklı kategorik özellikler taşımakla birlikte genel olarak “Kemalizm” ve askeri bürokrasinin topluma ve onun değerlerine bakışı, romanda bireysel hak ve özgürlükleri devlet lehine kısıtlayan jakoben ve elitist bir tavır içinde sunulmuştur.Romanda dinin alt sınıf örüntüsü olma, görece yoksunlukları telafi etme, yerine göre sosyal değişimi engelleme gibi özelliklerine vurgu yapılmakla birlikte daha çok onun darbe ile siyasal, ideolojik, popülist ve araçsal bir kimlik kazanması üzerinde durulmuştur. Nitekim türbanlı kızlar meselesi siyasal İslamcılar tarafından sembol bir dava olarak görülmüş ve onlar bu davayı siyasi bir malzeme yapmışlardır. Karda din ve siyaset ayrı, yerine göre birbirleriyle çatışan sosyal kurumlar olarak değerlendirilmekle birlikte özellikle Şeyh Efendi ve bazı bürokratların çıkar ilişkileri bağlamında söz konusu iki kurumun karşılıklı ilişkilerine de yer verilmiştir. Dolayısıyla Kar Türkiye’de din-siyaset ilişkisinin sembolik düzlemde yerini bulan kadim ilişkilerine de işaret etmiş olmaktadır.Gerek siyasi gerek dini her türlü dayatmaya karşı edebi bir tavır olarak kendini gösteren Kar din ve siyasete çoğulcu bir bakış önerisi getirmiştir. Türk romanı açısından yeni sayılabilecek bu durum aslında bir yönüyle de okuyucuya dinsel ve siyasal kültür konusunda yeni evrenler sunmuştur. Ancak söz konusu öneri ve bakış açıları dini ve siyasi kültürün kendi dinamiklerinden bağımsız şekillenmiş değildir. (shrink)

Hasan el-Bennâ, Tasavvuf ve Ahlâk Eğitimi, der. İsâm Telime, çev. Ayetullah Güneş, Cuma Karan, İstanbul: Nida Yayınları, 2008, ss.326, ISBN: 978-975-95080-3-6.